Miss Zelia Moss: Brazil's first Black Vedette

 Miss Zelia Moss

Details about Zelia Moss' origins and early life are currently shrouded in mystery. She was born in Virginia (according to a 1925 interview with the Brazilian "A Gazeta" newspaper) around c. 1882 according to her death certificate. 

At some point, she migrated north to New York, eventually finding employment as a cook. Some time later, she found employment as the maid of a visiting Russian ballerina, who was appearing in a vaudeville revue. After the show closed, the Russian entertainer returned to Europe, convincing her new Black maid to accompany her. While in Paris, the wealthy French boyfriend of her Russian employer began sponsoring Zelia's dance lessons.

By 1903, Zelia had begun touring as a song-and-dance act, appearing in theatres, circuses, hotels and cabarets around France, performing in French (her most popular song was "Viens Poupole" while dancing a ten minute Cake Walk). In the summer of 1905, she was one of the leading artists at the Casino de Montmartre.

Valencia (May 1906)

In March 1906, she departed for Spain, appearing for four months in Barcelona and Valencia, singing, performing the Cake Walk and the Brazilian Maxixe.

In 1907, Zelia was a regular headliner at the Rat Mort Club, when she given a role as Fleur de Lys in the vaudeville-revue, "La Milieme Constant" at the Folies-Dramatiques, alongside with Paris' Queen of the Musichall, Mistinguett. Created by Henry de Gorsse and Louis Forest, the show opened on October 18th and ran for six months, closing early April 1908. 

During the summer of 1909, Zelia sailed to Brazil for the first time with a two-week contract with Italian impresario, Paschoal Segreto. In June 1909, she arrived in Rio de Janeiro for a week at the Concert Avenida do Pavilhão Internacional. That summer, Rio was swarming with other foreign Black entertainers during the summer of 1909, particularly an Afro-American orchestra from London and Afro-British singer, Josephine Morcashani. Alongside Morcashani, Zelia Moss was one of the earliest foreign Black female performers to grace Brazilian stages (after Sissieretta Jones who visited in the mid-1890s). The Brazilian press hardly paid her much attention, treating her as another visiting foreign artist, however she was enamored with the massive South American republic and was determined to establish herself there. In July, she traveled 274 miles down the coast to Sao Paulo, for another successful week at the Moulin Rouge cabaret. By October, she had returned to France, appearing at a casino in Vincennes, dancing to the sounds of the Fortunia orchestra

Poster for "Claudine" (1910)

In January 1910, Zelia performed for a month at the Theatre des Deux-Masques with a troupe directed by Henri Vaudry. Ten months later, on November 10th, she starred in the three-act operetta-revue (written by Colette Willy & Henry Gauthier-Villars), "Claudine" at the Moulin Rouge with Polaire, Marise Fairy and Claudius heading the cast. Under the direction of M. Faubert and music provided by Rodolphe Berger, the operetta (a musical adaptation of Colette's immensely popular Claudine series) ran for several successful month. Zelia appeared in the third act, as a singer at the L'Abbaye de Theleme performing "Chanson Americaine", a comical song about how the singer dances and sings for her lover Tommy around their little bamboo cabin:

"Li que j'aime d'amour ex-treme, D'son nom d'bapteme. S'appell Tom-my. Li m'en flamme, moi suis le femme. Li le ma-hi! A ne-gresse a-vec ten dresse. Quand li s'a dresse, toujours sou-rit! Pour li plaire et li dis-traire souvent, Moi, je chante en dan-sant! Tom-my! Viens le pe-tit Tommy! Viens gentil Tommy! Beau sa pajou, le p'tit bi-jou, le grand jou-jou!  Tom-my! Viens le pe-tit Tommy! Viens gentil Tommy! Je brul! Je bous par tous les bouts...ca-ban' bam-bous!"

In December, during the run of the operette, Zelia, now considered a serious actress, was approached to join Dufrenne & Grandjean's theatrical company, which was preparing a French Provincial tour for their military drama operettea, "Le Train de 8h47" (a theatrical adaptation of Georges Courteline's 1891 novel).

On January 20th, 1911, Zelia quit the revue and left Paris with Dufrenne & Grandjean's company. Beginning January 24th in the city of Troyes, the company of twenty-one actors toured France and Belgium for over 13 months. In August, during a brief rest from the show, she returned to the French capital to perform for a week at the Jardin de Paris. In March 1912, the company briefly staged, "Un Voyage de Noces", a three-act revue written by Jean Casan and starring singer, Jeanne Bloch, as the headliner. However, the following month, the company departed for North Africa for a two month tour of Tunisia and Algeria. In local theatres across the Atlas mountains, "Le Train 8h47" (with full stage sets, military equipment and an actual train car) and a new five-act operetta, "Prostituee" (written by Victor Margueritte) was a success amongst the locals and the French colonials. In June 1912, shortly after returning to France, Georges Grandjean passed away.

By November, Zelia had quit the company and was dancing in a revue, "Alma, Tout le monde descend!" at the Magic City amusement park.

*

Zelia Moss disappears from the limelight all of 1913, possibly appearing in small clubs around the Montmartre. In December 1913, she sailed from France back to Brazil, this time with a two-month contract with Paschoal Segreto with a salary of 2,000 Francs per month. On December 30th, she opened as one of the headliners of Rio de Janeiro's Theatro Palace for three weeks and became a major curiosity and fascination to the public, performing to the sounds of the popular Portuguese composer Luiz Filgueiras and his orchestra.. 

Miss Moss: Has Two Genders

On January 1st, 1914, while strolling along the Avenida Branco, crowds swarmed the African-American entertainer. Brazilians were unaccustomed to Blacks walking freely through major cities, fashionably dressed in the latest Parisian fashions and smoking cigarettes (which was considered a man' pastime in strictly Catholic Brazil). In Brazil (as in the United States), the Black population was usually kept in the background, employed as domestics, cooks, field hands, etc. The few Afro-Brazilian entertainers that had the opportunity to appear in the circus/beer hall scene were usually boxers, Capoeira fighters and comical vaudeville acts. The end of European immigration in 1910 meant the resurfacing of fears among Brazilian elite about the “blackening” of the population. 

Also Zelia's extremely tall stature and strong features caused many to confuse her with being a female impersonator. She eventually fled to the Confeitaria Colombo, an elegant cafe on the Rua Gonçalves Dias, hoping to escape the gawking masses. Unfortunately, the crowds followed her inside, surrounding her table and observing her smoke. Eventually, she asked the crowds to come watch her perform at the Palace before hailing a taxi back to her hotel. The event caused her to make front pages of the Brazilian press the following day.

Sao Paulo (January 1914)

SS Saturno from Uruguay to Rio (Feb.17, 1914)

On January 22nd, Zelia sailed to Sao Paulo, where she opened that evening at the Casino Antarctica, staying on for very successful two-weeks. On February 7, she left for Santos, to appear at the Hotel Lanterna de Genova. The day before she was set to sail back to Rio, one of the hotel employees stole five rings worth 500 Francs, and two wallets, one containing 1,008 Francs from her room. She immediately reported the incident to the hotel owner and the local police. However, she was disappointed to discover that the local police were unwilling to cooperate with the Black cabaret artist. Disappointed, she sailed back to Rio.From Rio, Zelia sailed to Uruguay, where she spent a week performing in Montevideo. She then boarded the SS Saturno back to Rio, arriving on February 17th, hastily moving into room no.6 at the Hotel Rio-de-Janeiro at 25, Rua Visconde de Inhaúma. The following evening, she resumed her engagement at the Theatro Palace. On February 21st, she conducted an interview with the "A Noite" newspaper, recounting her scandalous ordeal in Santos two weeks prior. Once her second engagement with the Palace had ended, she returned to Europe.

"La Petit Dactylo" as Comtesse Papreka

Zelia doesn't resurface until October 1916, appearing in Paris in the three act vaudeville-operetta, "La Petit Dactylo" at the Theatre du Gymnase for a month. Created by Maurice Hennequin & Georges Mitchell, the star of the revue was the 22-year old singer Yvonne Printemps, supported by Henry Defreyn, Harry Baur, Marcelle Rayne and Lucienne Debrennes and Zelia (as the Comtesse de Papreka, with a headress of white feathers) performing to the sound of H. Maurice Jacquet's orchestra.

*

In January 1917, she was a headliner in variety program at the Theatre Le Peletier. Five months later, in May, she was apart of the revue, "La Revue Caressante" at the Theatre Gaite-Rochechouart for two months. The two act revue, set in Napoleonic Egypt, was created by P. Briollet & Alin Monjardin, the headliner was the Spanish vedette, La Belle Manesca supported by Sinoel, Henry Rossi, Marichal, Vylna, Simonne Sym and others. Zelia was given much praise for her sensual and exotic dance number in the tableaux, "Nuit d'Egypt" (Egyptian Nights).

"Judith, Courtisane..." (1917)

On December 22nd, she opened at the Theatre Michel in the comedy operetta, "Judith, courtisane..." with famous dancer Cleo de Merode, comedian Dorville, Renee Baltha, Madeleine de Barbieux as the principal stars. The production (with two acts and three tableaux) was created by Andre Barde & Michel Carre, music was provided by Charles Cuvillier's Orchestra and costumes and décor designed by the coutier, Paul Poiret. The operetta ran for two month, closing on February 15th, 1918.

Sao Paulo (October 1918)

Circo America (November 1918)

She remained in the French capital until the spring of 1918, when a bad love affair with a Frenchman and heavy German bombardment caused her to flee France permanently. Instead of returning to the United States (where she hadn't been in over fifteen years), Zelia returned to Brazil. By September, where she established herself in a house at 9, Rua Visconde de Uruguai in the Cantareira neighborhood of Niterói across Guanabara Bay from Rio de Janeiro, signing a contract with the Empreza Freitas Soares agency before departing for Sao Paulo, where she opened on October 1st, 1918, at the Miramar Cinema, remaining for a week. On November 14th, as WWI drew to a close, Zelia danced in the "Grande Feira Annual", a large festival of entertainment held at the brand new Circo America (located on the remains of the old Ajuda Convent, beside the Theatro Alhambra). Newspapers mentioned Zelia as: “The beautiful North-American, who performs innovative dances”. On the morning of December 1st, 1918, Zelia boarded a ferry across Guanabara Bay back to Niteroi. While strolling through the streets on her way home, she was arrested by a police officer who accused her of being a female impersonator. After appearing before the local judge and a quick medical exam with Dr. Plinio Travassos, the courts quickly dropped the charges.

Fazendo A America (1925)

During the 1920s, as Jazz and Samba began to sweep across Brazil, Zelia wanted to branch away from dancing attempted numerous times to embark on a full Brazilian tour as a professional concert singer, however, the various theatrical booking agents were unable to secure stable employment for the American star. 

Negresse de la Butte (1926)

By 1925, Zelia Moss, having retired from the stage, relocated to Sao Paulo and rented a room at a brothel at 20, Rua Tymbiras (a street that was well-known for brothels and gambling dens). She was soon able to support herself by providing services as a clairvoyant, palm reader, tarot card reader and selling lucky charms. Zelia became extremely successful in Sao Paulo and was soon charging 3,000 reis per consultation. However, she soon caught the attention of Brazil's Delegado de Costumes e Jogo. The function of this government organization was to investigate and prevent all activities of public drunkeness, lewd books, drawings & prints as well as the suppression of African religions such as Umbanda, Macumba and Candomble. Tarot reading had become an extremely lucrative business in 1920s Sao Paulo and the Delegado was determined to squash it.

On April 1st, 1925, agents of the Delegado de Costumes e Jogo raided Zelia's apartment during one of her consultations and escorted her to their offices at Rua 7 de Abril, where she was photographed and questioned by Dr. Mario Bastos Cruz about her origins. She recounted her life story and her nearly twenty years as a entertainer. She spoke of how she discovered the clairvoyant arts and tarot in Paris, when she visited the famous prophet and clairvoyant, Madame de Thebes. She was released shortly afterwards. Ten months later, Zelia returned to her previous occupation as a Tarot reader, operating in tent on the side of the road. This lead to another arrest on February 25, 1926. 

Companhia Negra (August 14, 1926)

In June 1926, 39-year old singer, composer, De Chocolat (Joao Cândido Ferreira) invited Zelia to Rio to be apart of his new theatrical troupe, Companhia Negra de Revistas. De Chocolat had toured France, Spain and Portugal in the early-1920s, and was fascinated with Parisian musichall and Afro-American culture in the Montmartre district. There he experienced Europe's curiosity for the exoticism of Africa. He had also been fascinated with Zelia's American origins, European career and her ability to perform in the French language. During this period, she was frequently billed under the misspelled names of Miss Mon's, Miss Moons, Miss Moons-Murray. Also due to her ability to perform in French, she was also often advertised as being from Barbados, Martinique and Haiti. 

The Companhia Negra de Revista's first revue, "Tudo Preto" (All Black) opened July 31for a month at the Theatro Rialto. Together with De Chocolat's musical compositions, Portuguese choreographer, Jayme Silva's dances, musician Pixinguinha and a company of 30 dark-skinned Afro-Brazilians, the revolutionary company was a huge success. Zelia appeared towards the end of the first act in a sketch, "Charabia Africanos", where she performed an exotic African batuque dance number, reminiscent of her Parisian days.

Working with a all-Black company, Zelia quickly discovered and experienced the discrimination and racism that Afro-Brazilians suffered. The same discrimination that had caused Zelia to escape from the United States had caught up with her in Brazil. Critics criticized the revue as revolting and uncivilized. The administration of the Rialto had also installed "odorless dressing rooms" and frequently fumigated the theatre for cockroaches. 

On September 2nd, a new revue, "Preto e Branco" (Black & White) opened at the Rialto, this time Zelia appeared in the second act, in the 15th sketch, "Martinho e Catharina", performing a romantic French chanson to Martinho (played by Guilherme Flores) and Catharina (played by Rosa Negra). After two weeks, on September 22nd, the company opened at Niteroi's Theatro Colyseu. However, De Chocolat left the company after a dispute with Jayme Silva and formed the short-lived Ba-Ta-Clan Company.

On October 20th, the Companhia Negra de Revista opened a Sao Paulo's Theatro Apollo and Theatro Malfada for two weeks. On November 17th, for a week, the company played in Santos at the Theatro Guarany with a new revue, "Carvão Nacional". While in Sao Paulo, the company hired the 11-year old dancer, Sebastião Bernardes de Souza Prata (later known as Grande Otelo).

From December 3rd, 1926 to January 10th, 1927, the Companhia Negra toured the state of Sao Paulo, appearing in Ribeiro Preto, Bebedouro, Campinas, Piracicaba and Amparo. In the spring, the company returned to Rio, opening a new revue, "Cafe Torrado" at the Theatro Republica on March 5th for two weeks. The company then played four days in Petropolis. In April 1927, the company left for a tour the states of Pernambuco and Bahia, which lasted three months.

The Company received a contract for a tour of Uruguay and Argentina. Unfortuntely, however the Brazilian government threatened the company with imprisonment and deportation if the "Negro-revue" went abroad as it was felt the company didn't properly represent Brazil.

"A Lei do Inquilinato" (1927)

Returning to Rio in July 1927, Zelia took a rest from the company, having secured a role in William Schocair's latest comedy, "A Lei do Inquilinato". Filming took place at the Quinta da Boa and Jardim da Gloria. The film, a Brazilian attempt at emulating American Westerns, premiered August 20th, 1927.

Zelia was soon back with the Companhia Negra and on September 10th, for a week, the company made its final appearance in Rio de Janeiro at the Circo Central Variedades. Afterwards Zelia Moss disappears for over 12 years. During the late-1920s, she doesn't seemed to have recorded while in Brazil as Afro-Brazilians began capitalizing off recording popular numbers from the Companhia Negra. When the Companhia Mulata Brasileira was formed in September 1930, Zelia would've been too dark-skinned to be apart of the cast.

Zelia Moss retired from the stage during the 1930s-1940a, eventually turning to domestic work to support herself. She returned to the limelight in 1941, joining the Companhia Casa de Loucos. In August 1941, the company performed for the first time in the revue, "Praia Vermelha" (Red Beach) at the brand new Theatro Casa de Loucos on the Rua Pedro I. She's briefly mentioned again in a article the following year, but disappears afterwards, most likely returning to domestic work.

Zelia Moss, aged 70, passed away on June 4th, 1952 in Rio de Janeiro. She was later buried at the Cemiterio de Sao Francisco Xavier.

Claudius Modjesko: The Creole Patti

Claudius Modjesko: Die Kreolische Patti

Born Edward Claude Thompson on December 26th, 1878 in Beaufort, South Carolina. In the late summer of 1893, the Sea Islands Hurricane devastated the Southeastern coast of the United States. Beaufort was especially hit hard, leaving much of the African-American community out of work. 

In 1894, at age 15, Claude began performing as a female impersonator (simply donning evening dresses), possibly in minstrel shows around the Southeastern United States. Three years later, by 1896/97, he had begun donning wigs and applying makeup. Audiences usually were unable to distinguish him from the other women in the show. 

Rome (1898)

By late-1898, received the opportunity to sail overseas to Europe. After a short period in Paris, he left for Rome. In various interviews, Claude claimed to have studied voice at an Italian music conservatory with a "Maestro Mantini". Instead, he roamed the streets of the Italian capital under the pseudonym of Rajah Kanjit Sinhji, soliciting sex from wealthy Italian male clientele. That winter, he began a relationship with, Mantissal, an advisor for the American Embassy. Eventually the relationship turned to Claude threatening to blackmail Mantissal in exchange for money.

Budapest passport (1899)

On October 21, 1899, Claude arrived in Budapest, moving into the Szallodaban Jozef Foherceg (Archduke Joseph Hotel), where for the next 22 days he began relationships with various Hungarian men, later ending with him extorting them for money. Eventually, on November 10th, Claude auditioned and landed a job as a female impersonator at the popular Etablissement Somossy Mulato. He also struck up a friendship with another African-American performer, Edgar Jones, who was also performing at the cabaret. For months, Claude had been the subject of an ongoing investigation involving the Italian government and the American Embassy. He was finally arrested on November 13th and imprisoned for seven days. After intense interrogation, he finally admitted his true identity to the Budapest's American Ambassador. On November 20th, Claude finally made his debut at the Etablissement Somossy. However, on the 22nd, he received his American passport and fled the city after only appearing for three days. 

1898:

Sails to Europe (October)

1899:

Budapest, Hungary- Archduke Joseph Hotel (October 21)

Budapest, Hungary- Etablissement Somossy Mulato (November 20-22)

Stockholm (June 1902)

Claude doesn't reappear until March 1902, performing for a week at Copenhagen's Cirkus Variete as "Modjesko: the Creole Patti". For the next 11 months, he successfully toured across Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Russia. For a brief period, at the beginning of the tour, he often accompanied the African-American entertainer and bandleader, Geo Jackson. In June, he appeared at Stockholm's Crystal Salon, and gave a series of interviews with various Swedish newspapers. He claimed to originate from Bombay, son of a Indian woman and British nobleman who sent him to London at age 3 and later Italy at age 10 to study music. In the fall, Modjesko appeared for three months at Stockholm's Mosebacke Variete, performing duets with the tenor singer, Khan Leopold. During this successful engagement, on October 16, Modjesko's personal valet, an African-American named Joseph Thomas was arrested after being caught stealing backstage.

1902:

Copenhagen, Denmark- Cirkus Variete (March 17-24)

Kristiania, Norway- Cirkus Variete (April 7-May 6)

Kristiania, Norway- Tivoli Haven (May 20)

Stockholm, Sweden- "Summer Revue" Kristallsalongen (June 18-July 12)

Gothenburg, Sweden- Lorensbergs Sommerteater (July 18-31)

Moscow, Russia (August)

Stockholm, Sweden- Mosebacke Variete (October 2-December 31)

1903:

Norrkoping, Sweden- Central Hotellet (January 5-15)

Berlin, Germany (May 8)

Lemberg, Austria- Colosseum Hermanow (May 16-29)

Teplitz, Austria- Variete Schwann (June 20-30)

Brauschweig, Germany (September)

Rome (November 1905)

Early 1905, the Creole Patti was residing west of the German capital at 7 Viktoria-Luise in the comfortable town of Schöneberg. On May 15th, 1905, Modjesko was issued a passport from Berlin's American Embassy for immediate passage to Russia, possibly performing in Moscow despite the ‘05 Revolution raging. From there, he made his way across to Belgium in mid-June for a week. The following month was spent touring across the Netherlands. On August 16th, he debuted at Paris' popular Olympia Musichall, where he shared the bill with Mata Hari, a brand-new exotic East-Indian dancer that had been taking Paris by storm since 1903. After receiving a new passport from the American Consul on August 30th, Modjesko departed in mid-September to Marseille before returning the French capital in October. In November, he departed for Italy, where he distributed signed copies of his publicity shots dressed in beautiful, dramatic gowns and jewelry he had acquired over the course of his tour. He completed the year back in the Netherlands, appearing in The Hague's Scala Theater on December 19th. 

Modjesko on a German postcard (1906)

On March 1st, 1906, Modjesko was back in Paris, headlining at the Alhambra  for another month, before moving on towards engagements in Germany and Italy. On April 24th, shortly after returning home to Berlin, Modjesko wrote a series of letters from his residence at 89 Mauerstraße (located in the middle-class Friedrichstadt District) to British impresarios, particularly a Mr. R. Ruddleslone of Blackpool’s Wintergarden, insisting that he was the only Creole female impersonator on the continent and hoped for a offer of an engagement in Britain during the summer season. Afterwards, Modjesko departed for another small German tour before finally opening in London in August, where he debuted a new song, “My Brazilian Boy” penned for him by the popular African-American composer, Harry Wellmon, whom had recently immigrated to England from the restricting racist American continent. On August 3rd, Wellmon composed another song, “My Blue-Eyed Jane”, which Modjesko performed upon debuting at the Hammersmith Palace Theatre on August 17th. It's unknown if he was engaged in Blackpool, however by the 24th, Modjesko was engaged in Brixton, September 14th at Oxford’s Chelsea Palace Theatre, September 28th at London's Metropolitan Theatre and finally an appearance at the Royal Standard Theatre on October 4th before sailing back to the continent, where he completed the year performing in Hamburg and Rotterdam.

Rotterdam - painting by L. Pissarro (1907)

In February, while in Paris on business, accompanied by his personal couturier, Arthur Brownton, Modjesko was approached by two 20-year old German men, whom called themselves Theodore Frigge and Schmidt. Frigge was really, Herman Otto Ludwig Scholkemeyer, born April 5, 1886 in Seesen, a small town near Hannover. He later settled Wittenberg and Magdeburg, where learned French and English. He first met Modjesko, at age 17 at cabaret in Brauschweig sometime in September 1903. Schmidt was really, Richard Winther, born c. 1886 in Bremen. The two men roamed around Germany, seeking ways to make easy money and running scams. Eventually the two men spent time in Italy, Egypt and Algeria before traveling to France. The two men joined Modjesko's troupe and accompanied him throughout Europe. In March, Modjesko was in Elberfeld, Germany for a week. While the Creole Patti performed, the two men were around town, running scams. Before the engagement was over, they presented Modjesko with a beautiful 400 Franc ring. On March 22, the troupe arrived in London, where Modjesko rented a home at 1 Brook Street, Kennington Road. For the next two weeks, they vacationed in London, while the Creole Patti scrambled to obtain a British booking. On April 8th, they arrived in Gothenburg, Sweden and boarded a train to Stockholm, where they checked into the Hotell Royal. Mrs. Hagman, the directrice of the hotel, quickly became suspicious of the three men and a female impersonator sharing a suite in the luxurious hotel. Eventually Modjesko grew tired of the men, and abandoning them in Scandinavia, fled with his couturier to Belgium on May 24th, where he had a months contract at Brussel's Palais d'Ete. Meanwhile, back in Sweden, on June 26th, Frigge and Schmidt robbed and murdered a Swedish postman named Olsson, fleeing with 700 Kroner only to be caught by the authorities the following day. Modjesko spent the month of July touring across the Netherlands. During this time, he became French Impressionist, Ludovic Pissarro and Dutch Fauvist, Kees van Dongen, who were both so intrigued by with the popular female impersonator, that before long nights onstage, Modjesko found himself being painted by such influential men in the European art scene. Later in the summer, Modjesko embarked on a tour deeper within the European continent. In August, Modjesko resumed his continental tour for two more months, although where he was engaged is unknown. 

Leon Cazauran (1907)

On October 8th, 1907, he was in Liverpool to board the S.S. Caronia on a journey back home to America for the first time in nine years. Upon arriving in New York eight days later, he secured an room at 253 West 30th Street. He was now employed as the personal secretary of the 28-year old French tenor singer, Léon Cazauran from Bayonne (or Bordeaux according to his ship records), who had successfully toured across Southern France, Italy, Algeria and Egypt. In 1906, he had even recorded in Milan. The relationship between the two entertainers is unknown, but the two may have met sometime between 1905-07 in either France or Italy. It's possible that the two were even lovers. 

Central Park

Cazauran finally arrived ten days later  on October 27th aboard the S.S. Kaiserin Auguste Victoria with a contract with the Hammerstein Company to perform in “Les Contes d’Hoffmann” and “Thaïs” at the Manhattan Opera House. Cazauran opened at the Manhattan Opera on November 4th, meanwhile, the duo began frequenting Central Park, strolling through the park together, as Cazauran enjoyed chatting with young boys hanging out at the Monkey House. On November 16th, their activities sparked curiosity in private detective, James J. Cain, who promptly arrested the Cazauran on the charges of corrupted the morals of 12 year old, Eugene Nash. Cazauran, who only spoke French, Spanish and Italian, was constantly shouting, “Eet is amazing!” before rambling on to Modjesko and the judge. Modjesko, who understood what harm an American jury could do to a African-American, took this opportunity to immediately take control of the situation, claiming that he hardly knew English himself, as he claimed he was originally from French West Africa and presented to the court nearly $1000 in bills. The courts immediately decided to drop the charges, however after a brief search of the men, fined Modjesko $10 after discovering a distasteful French nude photograph in his possession. The duo immediately fled back to Cazauran’s apartment at 247 West 34th Street, where they were the following day swamped by journalists. “The arrest won't hurt me much, except in this country, but for Cazauran it is a great tragedy” said Modjesko. “Innocent or guilty, the arrest on such a charge destroys his career. Mr. Hammerstein notified him today that he could not keep his engagement him.” Hammerstein immediately replaced Cazauran with Charles Dalmorès, who learned the role within two weeks. Although in December, Cazauran was allowed to appear in “Don Giovanni”, Modjesko promptly broke off his relationship with Cazauran, packed his bags and returned home to Europe.

1905:

Berlin, Germany- American Embassy (May 15)

Brussels, Belgium- Palais d'Ete (June 24-29)

Rotterdam, Holland- Variete Pflaging (July 29)

Paris, France- Olympia Musichall (August 16-September 21)

Marseille, France- Alcazar Leon Doux (September 22-October 5)

Paris, France- Olympia Musichall (October 6-November 19)

Rome, Italy (November 22)

The Hague, Holland- Scala Theater (December 19)

1906:

Paris, France- Alhambra Musichall (March 1-26)

Dortmund, Germany- Olympic Theater (March 24)

Paris, France- Alhambra Musichall (April 1-17)

Rome, Italy- Etablissement Olympias (April 18)

Paris, France- Alhambra Musichall (April 20-26)

Berlin, Germany (April 24)

Dusseldorf, Germany- Apollo Theater (May 25)

London, England- Hammersmith Palace Theatre (August 17-20)

Brixton, England (August 24-25)

Oxford, England- Chelsea Palace Theatre (September 14-21)

London, England- Metropolitan Theatre (September 28-October 4)

London, England- Royal Standard Theatre (October 5-6)

Hamburg, Germany- Flora Kabarett (November 1-4)

Rotterdam, Holland- Circus Variete (December 14-17)

1907:

Paris, France (February)

Elberfeld, Germany (March 1-7)

London, England (March 22-April 5)

Gothenburg, Sweden (April 8)

Stockholm, Sweden- Hotell Royal (April 8-May 23)

Brussels, Belgium- Palais d'Ete (May 24-June 21)

Amsterdam, Holland- Variete Flora (June 28-July 19)

Rotterdam, Holland- Variete Pflaging (July 26)

Liverpool, England- sails on the SS Caronia back to New York (October 8-16)

New York City, New York- sails back to Europe (December ?)

Paris - painting by K. van Dongen (1907)

On January 23rd, 1908, Modjesko was back in Paris at the Théâtre Scala for a month of whirlwind success. On February, for a brief four days, he was engaged at Antwerp’s Scala Theatre before returning to Paris. Unfortunately, news of the Monkey House incident had reached Western European newspapers. It's unknown how Europeans directors perceived the incident, but Modjesko's contracts in Western Europe began dwindling. He spent the rest of the year touring around France, Switzerland and the Netherlands. 

By 1909, seems to Modjesko have relocated permanently to Central and Eastern Europe, touring frequently between Austria, Hungary and Romania under the new pseudonym, "Claudino". That fall, he returned to Paris, appearing at the Parisiana cabaret for a month. Afterwards he returned east, travelling around Vienna and Prague with the Austrian performer, Pepi Weiss that winter. The Spring of 1910, he appeared in Graz, Budapest (with the Afro-American duo Fredy & Rudy Walker) and Bucharest. In the summer of 1911, while appearing in the Austrian spa town of Karlsbad, he received a passport to enter the Russian Empire. However, on September 11th, he boarded the SS Virginian from Liverpool heading towards Montreal. He's not mentioned appearing anywhere in Canada however. He's back in Europe be the spring of 1912, performing at Prague's Hotel Zentral. 

1908:

Paris, France- Theatre La Scala (January 23- February 28)

Antwerp, Belgium- Scala Theatre (February 15-18)

Basel, Switzerland- Cardinal Theater (April 1-6)

Scheveningen, Holland- Theaterzaal Kurhaus (August 12-28)

Rotterdam, Holland- Casino Variete (September 19)

1909:

Paris, France- Parisiana Cabaret (September 1-October 18)

Vienna, Austria- Etablissement Gartenbau (December 16)

Prague, Austria- Hotel Zentral (December 18)

1910:

Graz, Austria- Grazer Orpheum (March 1-15)

Budapest, Hungary- American Consulate (March 22)

1911:

Karlsbad, Austria- American Consulate (July 5)

Liverpool, England- sails on the SS Virginian to Montreal (September 11)

1912:

Prague, Austria- Hotel Central (April 3-7)

Scenes of Cairo (1914-1916)

After six months in France (according to his passport), Modjesko travelled south to Egypt, arriving a month before the outbreak of WWI. For the duration of the war, he established a residence in the Egyptian capital and toured around the crumbling Ottoman Empire. In January 1920, he began frequently appearing in cabarets and hotels around Beirut. Returning to Cairo in June, he received a new passport from the American Consulate and mentioned his plans of organizing a troupe to take back to Beirut with him for the opening of a new cafe-chantant that Fall. Afterwards, Modjesko disappears, only reappearing briefly on October 13th, 1921 to register with Cairo's American Consulate.

1914:

Arrives in Cairo, Egypt (June 4)

Cairo, Egypt- American Consulate (November 14)

1920:

Arrives in Beirut, Lebanon (January 23)

Beirut, Lebanon- American Consulte (May 11)

Returns to Cairo (June 11)

Cairo Egypt- American Consulate (August 2)

1921:

Cairo, Egypt- American Consulate (October 13)

Cairo - Passport photo (1920)

Arabella Fields (1879-after 1931)

Sarah Arabella Fields (January 31, 1879-after 1932)

Known as: Bella Fields, La Belle Fields, The Black Nightingale

Arabella Fields (born Sarah Arabella Middleton; January 31, 1879-c. late 1930s) was a African-American entertainer and actress whose extensive career was based in Europe, primarily Germany. Born in Philadelphia, she began appearing in minstrel shows as early as eight years old. From 1894-1896, she travelled to overseas with the "San Francisco Minstrels", until the show eventually fell apart in Russia.

By the turn of the century, she had become a popular headliner in European cabarets and variety shows. Around 1904, she settled in Hamburg and married German pianist and Impresario, Engelhardt A. G. Winter, soon accepting German citizenship. From this marriage, Arabella bore one child.

From 1900-1925, she toured Europe and the Middle East, dancing and singing in five languages (English, German, Russian, French and Dutch). In December 1907, she recorded six songs for Anker Records. Early 1908, she appeared about three silent films. She was often known as the "Black Nightingale".

Around 1921, she had separated from her husband and her child had left home. Throughout the 1920s, she toured Europe with Sam Wooding's "Chocolate Kiddies" and with Louis Douglas and his troupe. In 1931, she appeared in Rex Ingram's last film, "Baroud" in the role of the North African mammy, Mabrouka.

Galima's debut at the Mirror of Life Cinema (November 1913)

 

On the week of November 10-17, 1913, director Alexander Ivanovich Mizikin presented his Afro-American wife, Oriedo Galima (Emma Harris), the "Black Nightingale" for her debut at Kharkov's Mirror of Life Kino-Theater, located at 24 Moskalevskaya. To the sound of S.L. Dvorina's orchestra, she performed her exotic Algerian belly dances before performing a series of Russian romance songs.

On screen, in-between her performances, the comedy film "Long-Awaited Minute" (Долгожданная Минута), starring G. Weisse, was shown.

Buster Dunson (1904-1963)

Thomas Clifford Dunson (October 5, 1904-March 8, 1963)

Known as Cliff Dunson, La Buster, Buster Dunson

Dancer, Singer, Choreographer & Female Impersonator

Born Thomas Clifford Dunson on October 5th, 1904, in Brentwood, Texas to Hattie Woodard and William Dunson. There's hardly any information about his childhood in Texas. At some point during his teenage years, Dunson travelled west to California, possibly living with his cousin, June Bennett.

By May 1923, at age 19, Dunson had established himself in Southern California, as a popular female impersonator, "La Buster" performing the Charleston and toe dances. In early-1925, he was a member of the Alexander Fulton Revue. However, by that summer, he was touring around California with the Dixie Syncopators Revue, a talented African-American minstrel troupe of 12-16 members, which included the famous Bismark Ferris & his Family Band.

RMS Tahiti

By February 1926, after 19 months, the Ferris Family Band had separated from the Dixie Revue and returned to Los Angeles, accompanied by Dunson. The following month, Ferris announced his upcoming six-month tour of New Zealand and Australia. On September 8th, at 12:00pm the Ferris Jazzland Revue boarded the RMS Tahiti at San Francisco in the direction towards New Zealand. During their 20-day trip across the Pacific Ocean, the luxury liner briefly stopped in Papeete, Tahiti, where the revue gave a small performance, which ended in the natives showering the stage with thousands of Tahitian Centimes (which later proved to be worthless once they landed in Wellington).

Arriving on September 27th, the revue was met by theatrical impresario Alfred Linley of the Wellington Amusement Syndicate Company, who arranged the entire New Zealand tour. On October 1st, the revue opened at Wellington's Paramount Theatre, where it played for a successful twelve days. The 2-part show consisted 14-sketches, the first act began with a massive minstrel-style cakewalk before transforming into modern Charleston dance. The second act was 13-sketches of non-stop dancing, singing and comedy before it closed with the Kentucky Derby finale (another cakewalk). Dunson particularly appeared first in "Essence", the third sketch of the second act, where he performed alongside Comedian Jokey Murray, while pianist Leona Everly played. He later reappears in the ninth sketch, "Solo Dance", performing his eccentric toe and step dancing. Throughout the entire spectacle, Dunson was presented as a fashionably dressed woman, only pulling off his wig towards the end of the show.

On October 13th, the revue departed for a 12-week provincial tour, appearing in Masterton, Stratford, Waverley, Opunake, Palmerston, Nelson, Christchurch, Poverty Bay, Gisborne and Waihi. On December 7th, towards the end of tour, comedian Robert 'Jokey' Murray died suddenly of heart failure caused by Peritonitis at the Napier Public Hospital. On December 26th, the revue opened at Auckland's Town Hall for a week, with a revised version of the show.

On January 1st, 1927, the last performance was given in the Onehunga suburb before the revue packed and three days later boarded the RMS Makura back to America. The additional three-month Australian engagement had been cancelled due to the sudden death of Jokey Murray. Dunson and Louis Godfrey (comedian, tenor singer and end man), quietly signed a three-month contract with the Wellington Amusement Syndicate Company and remained in the country after the revue departed. On January 17th, Godfrey and Dunson opened at the Hippodrome Theatre, where they performed for a week, introducing the Charleston and the Savannah Shuffle to packed houses, before moving on to the Empress Theatre. In February, after an apparent week tour in the provinces, the duo had returned to Auckland, appearing at the Princess Theatre for two weeks before disappearing from the city again.

In March the duo suddenly separated. Soon Dunson and Godfrey were in a dispute with the Wellington Amusement Syndicate, mainly pertaining to on their contractual right to have their return fares covered (including rail from San Francisco to Los Angeles). Due to this dispute, suddenly both performers were unemployed and stranded in Auckland. 38-year old Godfrey, placed numerous ads in local newspapers seeking theatrical work and was able to resume performing around Auckland and Wellington, although in various brief engagements. Meanwhile, 22-year old Dunson was left wandering around Auckland, spending the last of his money sending a telegram to relatives in California. On April 10th, at 4:30am Constable Dunn discovered Dunson asleep in a doorway on Auckland's Grey Street and placed him into the care of the local Salvation Army. Although the American Embassy could offer no help, Senior Sargent Edwards of the local Police Court was able to secure Dunson's ticket back to America (including passage from San Francisco to L.A.). On April 16th, Dunson boarded the RMS Makura, which took 19 days to make its way back to the United States, briefly stopping in Hawaii along the way. Unfortunately, Godfrey wasn't able to return to the States until July.

On May 13th, 1927, upon returning, Dunson discovered that the Jazzland Revue had quickly dissolved and the entire cast had completely went its separate ways. For the next fifteen months, Dunson fades away from the spotlight, likely performing in various nightclubs around California.

In mid-July 1928, American impresario, Richard Wilbur returned to the United States after a extensive fourteen-month tour of the Far East with plans of bringing an African-American revue overseas. For several weeks, he traveled around San Francisco and Los Angeles, assembling a 18-member revue. On August 4th, Harry Bell, Wilbur's personal representative based in Shanghai immediately began preparing for the arrival of Wilbur's creation. Dunson, determined to return to the Far East again, joined in as a member of Wilbur's Blackbirds Revue (whose name was capitalizing of the success of Lew Leslie's similar production).

Blackbirds Revue aboard the Shimyo Maro (1928)

On August 15th, the Blackbirds company boarded the S.S. Shimyo Maro from San Francisco to Maui, where they arrived after a week. The revue debuted at Honolulu's State Theater on the 24th, where it played successfully for 10 days. The show was nearly a replica of the old Ferris Jazzland Revue, offering plantation melodies, Negro spirituals and modern Jazz

On September 4th, the company (except for Wilbur and his wife) boarded the S.S. Siberia Maru for Hong Kong. For the next couple of months, the show appeared in Hong Kong, Shanghai and Yokohama, Japan. Early November was possibly spent in the Philippines. On November 17th, the company arrived in Batavia, capital of the Dutch East Indies on the island of Java, where it opened at the Concordia Theatre, appearing for nine days before leaving for Semarang, where the revue performed for two days at the Pathe Theatre and later two more days back in Batavia at the Stadsshouwburg. On December 3rd, the company boarded the S.S. Plancius from Batavia to Singapore. That same night, the company opened at Singapore's Victoria Theatre, where for a week the production received poor reviews by the unimpressed audiences, although Buddy Deloach's performance of 'Hello Bluebird' did receive positive reviews. From Singapore, the company sailed to Burma, appearing in Rangoon and Mandalay. By Christmas of 1928, the Blackbirds revue had opened in Madras on the first stage of their month-long tour of British India.

Throughout January 1929, the company found itself performing in the exotic destinations of Calcutta, Lucknow and Bombay. The first week of February was likely spent in Colombo, Ceylon. On February 7th, the company arrived in Kuala Lumpur, for an appearance at the Town Hall. Unfortunately before the performance could begin that night, 29-year old Marie Lewis, one of the leading girls, suddenly of pneumonia at the General Hospital. That nights engagement was cancelled and Ms. Lewis was buried at the Cheras Road Cemetery the following day. On February 27th, the entire company boarded the S.S. Shimyo Maru from Kobe, Japan on its return back to America after six-months in the Far East. However, almost like a complete replay of his time with the Ferris Revue, Dunson remained abroad, possibly sailing for the Philippines shortly after the funeral of Marie Brown.

Manila (1930s)

In March 1929, Dunson was performing in various cinemas and theatres around Manila, performing with a clumsy Filipino partner according to journalist John Maynard. By October, Dunson was one of the leading stars of the Philippine stages. He had become one of the main headliners at the Cine Savoy, often choreographing magnificent American, French and Spanish-styled productions in which he was the star. Philippine audiences were constantly raving about his extravagant costumes, and soon the majority of the performers in Manila were wearing his latest creations. Another of his ventures was the recruitment of the Garcia sisters. Florencia and Modesta Garcia (both 12 and 13-years old) were both dancers in John C. Cowper's Savoy Nifties, a troupe of young chorus girls that performed in revues at the Cine Savoy. After witnessing the in several of his revues at the Savoy, Dunson took the sisters under his wing and trained to them into one of the most popular dance team in the South Pacific.

In the summer of 1930, Dunson and the Garcia sisters left Manila for a nine-month tour of Java. In August, the trio were performing in Semarang at the Wijziging Dancing, a cabaret located within the Pasar Malem market. The following month, they appeared in Jogja at the Schouwburgzaal. October was spent back in Surabaya at the La Gaite cabaret. On December 1st, the trio opened at the New Monico cabaret, where they remained successfully for four-and-a-half months before eventually returning to the Philippines. From 1931-1932, Dunson was starring once again at the Cine Savoy and the brand new Metropolitan Theatre.

Early 1933, Dunson travelled to Shanghai, headlining at the Little Club, a popular Jazz cabaret located at 60 Bubbling Wells Road. African-American artists, Nora Holt and Lottie Gee were also appearing at the cabaret during Dunson's brief sojourn there. In July 1933, Dunson and his troupe returned back to Manila, where he was headlining for the next five-months at the Palace Theatre alongside popular Filipino entertainer, Katy de la Cruz. Christmas of '33, was spent at Tom's Dixie Kitchen, one of the leading restaurants in Manila since 1916. The establishment was owned by Tom Pritchard, an African-American businessman who had settled in the Philippines before 1910.

In 1934, Dunson was appearing in the Midnight Revue at the Santa Ana Cabaret, located on H. Santos Street across from the Manila Race Tracks. Located on the outskirts of town, the Santa Ana was owned by the Italian-American businessman, John Canson (Giovani Canzona), and was advertised as the "Largest Cabaret in the World". In May, during a going-away party held at the Santa Ana for Tom Pritchard (Tom and his family were vacationing in California), Dunson engaged in a physical altercation with Tamara Weems, possibly the dancer 'Miss Tamara', that had appeared with him at the Palace the previous year. Four months later, after the revue came to a close, Judge Delfin Jaranilla sentenced Dunson to a brief three day jail sentence. In early-December, Dunson and his troupe departed for a two-month engagement in Cebu.

On February 3rd, 1935, Dunson and his troupe sailed back from Cebu aboard the S.S. Corregidor back to Manila. The spring and summer of 1935, was spent at Cine Astor and later the Bellevue Theatre.

Dunson and the Garcia Sisters opened the year of 1936, performing at Shanghai's Casanova Ballroom, where they were engaged successfully for four months before departing for Tokyo. However, with the rising strain between China and Japan, the trio returned to Manila.

July 1938

December 1938

Beginning in January 1938, Dunson and Flo Garcia appeared for three months at Singapore's famous Raffles Hotel and at the Happy Cabaret, an establishment located within the Happy World Amusement Park. That summer, Dunson rented a building at 74-4 Bras Basah Road (near the Raffles Hotel), which he converted into his Studio de Danse, which was inaugurated June 26th, 1938. From 10am-8pm, he offered tap dancing and New York Ballroom step lessons, throughout the summer. In December, he returned to the Happy Cabaret alone. Dunson was photographed by the Malaya Tribune, who mentioned he was performing in charity events around Singapore, raising money for the China Relief Fund.

Singapore (April 1940)

Despite the crisis of the Sino-Japanese War becoming increasingly dangerous, Dunson continued touring, flying back-and-forth between Manila and Singapore, accompanied by partners, George D'Almeida and Anita Gonzales. Together, the trio opened on April 21st, 1940, in the Big Apple Revue at the Happy World Cabaret. During the day, Dunson and D'Almeida ran the a brand new dance studio that they operated together on the grounds of the Happy World Amusement Park. Afterhours, the trio performed together in the cabarets. In May, the St. Louis Blues Revue opened, this was followed by the Midnight Scandals Revue in June. After a break in July, Dunson returned alone to the Happy World for a couple more months before his contract ended mid-September. On December 5th, Dunson (and his latest partner Maggie) opened at the Raffles Hotel for a months engagement. They were so successful that four months later, on May 3rd, 1941, the opened back at the Raffles Hotel with a five-month contract. On October 8th, 1941, a week after his contract with the Raffles had ended, Dunson moved on to the New World Amusement Park with a partner named Galloway. 

Manila (December 1941)

Returning home to Manila in November, he found his adopted country had mobilized and beginning the process of defending the country from impending invasion.

On December 8th, 1941, the Imperial Japanese Army landed in the Philippines, beginning a month-long bloody invasion. On December 24th, a mass evacuation from Manila was initiated. By December 26th, Manila was declared an open city by General MacArthur. However, the United States military was still using the city for logistical purposes while the city was declared open and the Japanese army ignored the declaration and bombed the city.

At some point during this period, as Filipino and Foreign refugees fled into the woods, Southern regions of the Philippines and to neighboring countries, Dunson fled to the island of Java, which was still safe from the clutches of the Japanese...for the moment.

Los Angeles (1943)

For the next three months, as the Philippines and Singapore was quickly swallowed by the Japanese, Dunson settled in the city of Surabaya, where he quietly lived until the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies began on March 9th, 1942. Around March 9th, as the government of the Dutch East Indies surrendered to the Japanese, Dunson, together with hundreds of other Asian, European and American refugees boarded the S.S. Tjinegara from Surabaya to New Orleans, arriving April 19th.

Back in America after nearly 14 years abroad, the renowned cabaret star had settled in Los Angeles with his cousin June Bennett at 4920 McKinley Avenue and found employment at the Gaylord Apartment building. On June 24th, he was registered with U.S. Army, however shortly afterwards he quickly departed for Phoenix, Arizona where he was listed as staying at 1324 Washington Street on January 24th, 1943.

Dunson's life from 1943-1953 is at the moment undocumented. It's most likely, he didn't return to the Philippines after the war. In 1953, Dunson had retired from performing and settled in Los Angeles as a cook at Cecil's Café, where he remained until January 5th, 1963, when he was admitted into the General County Hospital after catching pneumonia. On March 8th, 1963, Thomas Clifford Dunson succumbed to his ailment. A week later, on March 15th, he was buried at the Roseland Cemetery.

Afro-Americans in Imperial Russia: Irene Ford

Clara Irene Ford (1877-1906)

Clara Irene Ford, born December 17th, 1877 in New York traveled to Europe early-1895 with a group consisting of Walter Wilkins (Dec.25, 1874 - Petersburg, VA) and Josephine B. Kent (Dec.25, 1873 - Washington DC)

Under the direction of German Impresario, Adele Weltenburg, the trio toured around Germany, Sweden and Russia for a year. On November 29th, 1895, Irene and Josephine signed a four-year contract with Frau Weltenburg, and continued touring successfully across Germany, Scandinavia and Russia until 1898. At some point, Marguerite Rhodes (Apr.27, 1877 - Washington DC) and Victoria Crockett (Aug.20, 1876 - Manhattan, NY) also joined the troupe.

In 1899, Irene Ford went solo, adopting the pseudonym, "Brazil Girl" performing her exotic songs and dances for eight consecutive years.

1899:
Berlin, Germany {Applied for passport} (Feb.3)
Copenhagen, Denmark- Circus Variete (Mar.6)/Amsterdam, Holland- Circus Carre (Mar.16-19)
Riga, Latvia- Variete Monopol (Apr.4-30)
Saint Petersburg, Russia- Aquarium Theatre (Sep.13)

1900:
Posen, Germany- Apollo Theater (Nov.?)
Berlin, Germany- Passage Theater (Nov.4-Dec.30)

1901:
Dresden, Germany {Applied for passport} (Feb.11)
Hamburg, Germany- Apollo Theater (Sep.14)
Hamburg, Germany- Apollo Theater (Dec.1)

1904:
Moscow, Russia- Aumont Theatre (May 1-5)

1905:
Moscow, Russia {Applied for passport} (Dec.24)

1906:
Moscow, Russia {Entertains Laura Bowman & Pete Hampton during their visit} (?)
Kiev, Ukraine {Clara Irene Ford dies mysteriously in Kiev} (Nov.28)

Since her arrival in Europe, Ms. Ford established a permanent residence in Moscow and after 1904, spent the majority of her time performing mainly around the Russian Empire.

In early 1906, together with Ollie Burgoyne, she entertained Afro-American duo, Hampton & Bowman during their Moscow engagement. In her later memoires, Laura Bowman recalls that Irene Ford was a popular attraction that had a string of Russian lovers from whom she frequently received expensive gifts.

On November 28th, 1906, during the chaos of the 1905 Revolution, Clara Irene died at age 28 in the provincial city of Kiev. Although her death was reported by the American Consulate, they never mentioned in any of the reports exactly her cause of death.